If water could speak, it would tell one of the oldest stories of our planet - the story of how Earth evolved. Water has helped shape the Earth over millions of years, gradually transforming rocks and landscapes into the green, blue, and vibrant world we know today. When the Earth became capable of sustaining human life, water was among the first conditions that made life possible. It helped transform rocky terrain into fertile land and continues to sustain the ecosystems and communities that depend on it. The journey of water, therefore, begins with the birth of the Earth itself. Water is also deeply woven into our religion, mythology, culture, beliefs, and literature. Across generations, it has remained central to the story of human civilisation. When we think about India’s relationship with water, we are reminded of a famous passage from Bhagirather Utsa Sandhane by Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose: “নদীকে জিজ্ঞাসা করিতাম, ‘তুমি কোথা হইতে আসিতেছ?’ নদী উত্তর করিত, ‘মহাদেবের জটা হইতে।’ “River, from whence have you come?”“From the matted locks of Lord Mahadev.” These evocative lines, reflecting Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose’s account of the journey of the Ganga, remind us that India’s relationship with water has never been simply about how much water is available. Water has always carried stories—of rivers and landscapes, faith and livelihoods, communities and cultures. It has been imagined, worshipped, celebrated and remembered across generations. Rivers such as the Ganga, Yamuna, Narmada, Godavari and Cauvery are not merely geographical features. They occupy an important place in India’s collective memory and cultural life. Wells, ponds, tanks, ghats and other water bodies have historically been much more than physical infrastructure. They have been places where communities gathered, livelihoods developed and social life unfolded. This is what makes India’s water story different from a story about infrastructure alone. Water, once largely understood as a shared resource and an essential part of community life, gradually became something that people sought to control, own and compete for. As human demand increased and water resources were managed in different ways, what was once seen as abundant and shared increasingly came to be associated with scarcity, competition and, at times, conflict. To understand how India manages water today, it is useful to look at how this relationship has evolved—from living with rivers and rainfall, to building systems to store and distribute water, and now towards managing water as a scarce and shared resource. At the same time, efforts are under way to decentralise water management, strengthen local institutions and improve access. The larger goal is to ensure that water, essential to everyone, is managed as a shared resource and made available more equitably. The Water Reality of a Diverse Country India’s water is not distributed evenly across the country or throughout the year. A large share of the country’s annual rainfall comes during the southwest monsoon, mainly between June and September. A good monsoon fills reservoirs, supports rivers and helps recharge groundwater. A weak or delayed monsoon can quickly put pressure on farmers, towns and cities. India supports around 18% of the world’s population with only about 4% of the world’s freshwater resources. This makes careful management and efficient use of water particularly important. The challenge, however, is not simply the amount of rainfall. It is also about when and where the rain falls, and how much of it can be captured and stored. Heavy rainfall over a short period can cause flooding, while the same region may experience water stress a few months later. Ensuring that water is available when and where it is needed is therefore one of India’s central water-management challenges. Groundwater: The Water We Do Not See If the monsoon is the visible part of India’s water story, groundwater is its hidden foundation. Groundwater supports a large share of irrigation and is an important source of drinking water, particularly in rural areas. At the same time, the amount of water available per person has declined significantly over the decades—from about 5,177 cubic metres in 1951 to 1,545 cubic metres in 2011. For decades, increasing extraction has placed pressure on groundwater resources in several parts of the country. In some areas, water is being withdrawn faster than it can naturally recharge. Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and parts of the National Capital Region have experienced significant groundwater stress. Groundwater is particularly difficult to manage because it cannot be seen easily. An aquifer can extend across administrative boundaries and may become visible only when wells have to be deepened, pumps begin yielding less water or water quality starts changing. This has led to a gradual shift towards better groundwater monitoring, improving recharge and, importantly, managing demand. The Atal Bhujal Yojana is one example of this approach. River Basins: Where Water Connects Places India’s rivers tell another part of the story. The Himalayan river systems, including the Ganga and Brahmaputra, receive water from both snowmelt and the monsoon. Many peninsular rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Narmada, depend more strongly on the monsoon and experience significant seasonal variations in flow. This creates a complex situation in which one part of the country may face floods while another experiences water scarcity. A river basin may have abundant water during the monsoon but face competing demands during the dry months. This is why the river basin is increasingly recognised as an important unit for water planning. Water does not follow state or district boundaries. Basin-level planning makes it possible to consider drinking water, agriculture, industry, groundwater, flood management and ecological needs together. Understanding Differences Across States India does not have a single, uniform water situation. Water availability, rainfall patterns, groundwater conditions, cropping practices, urbanisation and institutional capacity vary from state to state—and often from district to district. Some regions receive abundant rainfall but continue to face problems related to flooding, inadequate drainage and insufficient water storage. Other regions receive less rainfall and depend heavily on groundwater, reservoirs or water transfers. A solution that works in one state may not necessarily work in another. The Composite Water Management Index, developed by NITI Aayog, was an important step in recognising these differences. It brought together indicators covering groundwater, surface water, irrigation, watershed development, rural and urban water supply, and governance. It helped states assess their performance and identify opportunities to learn from one another. The broader lesson is simple: effective water management requires reliable data and regular assessment, but successful solutions must also reflect local conditions and regional needs. From Independence to the Jal Jeevan Mission At Independence in 1947, access to safe drinking water was a major challenge, particularly in rural India. The Government of India gradually responded through a series of planned programmes, beginning with the National Water Supply and Sanitation Programme in 1954. During the 1970s, the focus shifted towards expanding rural coverage through the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (1972–73) and the Minimum Needs Programme (1974–75). In the 1980s, greater attention was given to scientific planning, technology and water quality through the National Drinking Water Mission (1986), which became the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission in 1991. By the 1990s and early 2000s, the focus was moving beyond infrastructure towards community participation and better management. Swajaldhara (2002) encouraged community involvement, while Bharat Nirman (2005) and JNNURM supported further improvements in rural and urban water supply. The National Rural Drinking Water Programme (2009) brought greater attention to water quality, sustainability and service delivery. The National Water Mission (2011) emphasised conservation and improved water management, while the Swachh Bharat Mission (2014) and AMRUT (2015) strengthened the focus on sanitation and urban water services. Together, these efforts gradually shifted India’s water agenda from expanding basic infrastructure towards improving coverage, quality, sustainability, community participation and service delivery. This provided an important foundation for the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), launched in 2019, which placed functional household tap connections and regular access to safe drinking water at the centre of the rural drinking-water agenda. Jal Jeevan Mission: Bringing Water Closer to Home For many rural families, the Jal Jeevan Mission has changed the way drinking water is accessed. Launched in 2019, the mission aims to provide functional tap water connections to rural households. But a tap connection is only the beginning. For a water supply system to truly serve a community, water needs to be available, safe, and reliable. This brings several other elements into focus—including source sustainability, water quality, disinfection through chlorination, operation and maintenance, monitoring and community participation. Chlorination is an important step in ensuring that water supplied through these systems remains safe for drinking by controlling harmful microorganisms. The mission has also strengthened the role of Gram Panchayats and village-level Water and Sanitation Committees in planning, monitoring, and managing rural water systems. The next challenge is to ensure that these systems continue to function over time, that water is properly disinfected and monitored, and that their sources remain sustainable. A Journey Still Unfolding India’s water story is changing. The country continues to face pressure on groundwater, competing demands on rivers, an increasingly unpredictable monsoon and rising urban demand. Yet alongside these challenges, there is a growing recognition that water security depends on how well we understand, protect and manage the resources we already have. From expanding rural tap-water connections and strengthening local institutions to improving groundwater management and promoting conservation, India’s approach is gradually becoming more integrated. The emphasis is shifting from simply creating infrastructure to ensuring that water systems remain sustainable, reliable and responsive to local needs. If water could speak today, perhaps it would remind us that its journey has not changed. It still comes with the rain, flows through rivers, enters the ground, supports agriculture and sustains communities. What has changed is our relationship with it—and the responsibility that comes with that relationship. India’s water journey, therefore, is not simply a search for more water. It is a journey towards using what we have more wisely, protecting the sources that sustain us and recognising water as a shared resource. And like the rivers that continue to flow across the country, this journey will continue—shaped by our choices, our institutions and the communities that depend on water every day. Oil has long been regarded as one of the most strategically important resources because of its role in energy, industry, transport and economic development. Water, however, is different. It is not merely an input for economic activity; it is the foundation of life, food production, public health and ecological stability. As freshwater resources become increasingly stressed, water may emerge as one of the defining strategic resources of the future. Unlike oil, water cannot be replaced by an alternative resource, and its sustainability depends on the health of the ecosystems through which it moves. Therefore, water security must begin with the sustainability of water resources. This article is written by Rajarshi Roy, Officer, and Supriya Mukherjee, Manager, Evidence Action. [Published in NIWAS Vartika - Vol-II, Issue-2 (Jul-Sep'26): A WASH magazine by SPM NIWAS, MoJS, GoI]